Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 on contestable and fair markets in the digital sector and amending Directives (EU) 2019/1937 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Digital Markets Act)

Summary:

Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 - formally adopted by the co-legislators on 14 September 2022 - setting out rules for platforms that act as gatekeepers in the digital sector. It is also known as the Digital Markets Act (DMA). This is a text with EEA relevance.

Further information:

Digital services brought a number of benefits for uses and contributed to the internal market by opening new business opportunities and facilitating cross-border trading. In this context, a small number of large online platforms capture the biggest share of the overall value generated. They became key structuring elements of the digital economy, intermediating the majority of transactions between users and business users. Many of these undertakings are also tracking and profiling end users. A few large platforms thus act as gatekeepers between business users and end users and enjoy an entrenched and durable position, often as a result of the creation of conglomerate ecosystems around their core platform services, which reinforces existing entry barriers.

Their impact on digital markets create dependencies of many business users on these gatekeepers, which leads, in certain cases, to unfair behaviour vis-à-vis these business users. Regulatory initiatives by Member States would not fully address the issue and could lead to a fragmentation of the EU internal market. The objective of this proposal is to allow platforms to unlock their full potential by addressing the most salient incidences of unfair practices and weak contestability so as to allow end users and business users alike to reap the full benefits of the platform economy and the the digital economy at large, in a contestable and fair environment.

The purpose of this Regulation is to contribute to the proper functioning of the internal market by laying down harmonised rules ensuring for all businesses, contestable and fair markets in the digital sector across the European Union (EU) where gatekeepers are present. It introduces amendments to Directive (EU) 2019/1937 and Directive (EU) 2020/1828. Such concerns were first highlighted in the European Commission's Communication on Shaping Europe’s Digital Future. A draft law was eventually tabled by the European Commission on 15 December 2020 as part of the a legislative package which also included the proposed Digital Services Act (DSA). It built on the provisions of Regulation (EU) 2019/1150, also known as the P2B Regulation.

The Council of the European Union adopted a general approach on 25 November 2021. The European Parliament endorsed a negotiating position on 15 December. An informal agreement between the co-legislators on a compromise text for this file was reached on 24 March 2022. This was formally endorsed by the Parliament on 5 July, followed by the Council on 18 July. The Act was signed by the co-legislators on 14 September 2022 and published in the Official Journal on 12 October 2022. The rules entered into force on 1 November 2022.

• Primary Source

Commentary and Analysis

Kluwer: Competition Law Blog: Digital Markets Act http://competitionlawblog.kluwercompetitionlaw.com/category/digital-markets-act/

Article19: Issues: Digital Markets Act https://www.article19.org/issue/digital-markets-act/

European Publishers Council (EPC): Blog: Categories: Digital Markets Act https://www.epceurope.eu/blog/categories/digital-markets-act

Verfassungsblog: Tag: Digital Markets Act https://verfassungsblog.de/tag/digital-markets-act/

Oxford University: Business Law Blog, 14/12/2020: Antitrust 2.0 – Governance of oversight over digital gatekeepers https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/business-law-blog/blog/2020/12/antitrust-20-governance-oversight-over-digital-gatekeepers

TIME, 15/12/2020: How the E.U's Sweeping New Regulations Against Big Tech Could Have an Impact Beyond Europe https://time.com/5921760/europe-digital-services-act-big-tech/

Bruegel: Podcast, 16/12/2020: The new EU digital regulations: Explained https://www.bruegel.org/2020/12/the-new-eu-digital-regulations-explained/

EU Law Analysis, 14/01/2021: The proposed Digital Markets Act: overview and analysis http://eulawanalysis.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-proposed-digital-markets-act.html

EPRS: Policy Podcast, 14/01/2021: Regulating Digital Gatekeepers: Background On The Future Digital Markets Act https://epthinktank.eu/2021/01/14/regulating-digital-gatekeepers-background-on-the-future-digital-markets-act-policy-podcast/

LSE: Media@LSE Blog, 25/01/2021: Vaccines for the Digital Economy? The UK Digital Markets Unit, the EU Digital Markets Act and the German GWB amendment https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/medialse/2021/01/25/vaccines-for-the-digital-economy-the-uk-digital-markets-unit-the-eu-digital-markets-act-and-the-german-gwb-amendment/

Bruegel: Blog, 16/02/2021: Regulating big tech: the Digital Markets Act https://www.bruegel.org/2021/02/regulating-big-tech-the-digital-markets-act/

Institut Montaigne: Blog, 17/02/2021: Digital Markets Act: Is the European Union Taking the Lead? https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/digital-markets-act-european-union-taking-lead

ITIF: Publications, 24/05/2021: The Digital Markets Act: European Precautionary Antitrust https://itif.org/publications/2021/05/24/digital-markets-act-european-precautionary-antitrust

CERRE: Publications, 26/05/2021: Making the Digital Markets Act more resilient and effective https://cerre.eu/publications/european-parliament-digital-markets-act-dma-resilient-effective/

European Law Blog, 24/06/2021: Digital Markets Act: beware of procedural fairness and judicial review booby-traps! https://europeanlawblog.eu/2021/06/24/digital-markets-act-beware-of-procedural-fairness-and-judicial-review-booby-traps/

CMS Law-Now: eAlerts, 30/06/2021: EU National Competition Authorities publish joint paper on Digital Markets Act, demand stronger role https://www.cms-lawnow.com/ealerts/2021/06/eu-national-competition-authorities-publish-joint-paper-on-digital-markets-act-demand-stronger-role

FieldFisher: Insights, 23/07/2021: The EU's proposed Digital Markets Act https://www.fieldfisher.com/en/services/competition-and-consumer/competition-connect-blog/the-eu-s-proposed-digital-markets-act

CSIS: Report, 15/09/2021: Implications of the Digital Markets Act for Transatlantic Cooperation https://www.csis.org/analysis/implications-digital-markets-act-transatlantic-cooperation

CMS Law-Now: eAlerts, 22/09/2021: “Friends of an effective Digital Markets Act” part 2 – France, Germany and Netherlands publish second joint position paper with proposals to amend the DMA https://www.cms-lawnow.com/ealerts/2021/09/friends-of-an-effective-digital-markets-act-part-2-france-germany-and-netherlands

EUI: Florence School of Regulation: Policy Briefs No 49/2021, October 2021: Digital markets act in the making : challenges and potential of the new EU regulation on big tech https://hdl.handle.net/1814/72918

BEUC: Blog, 29/10/2021: Making the Digital Markets Act work for consumers – BEUC’s take on Member States position https://www.beuc.eu/blog/making-the-digital-markets-act-work-for-consumers/

European University Institute (EUI): News Hub: Opinion, 11/11/2021: Philip Hanspach and Nicolas Petit on EU’s Digital Markets Act https://www.eui.eu/news-hub?id=philip-hanspach-and-nicolas-petit-on-eus-digital-markets-act

EBU: Policy Position, 23/11/2021: Digital Markets Act: EBU welcomes IMCO report, calls for loopholes to be addressed https://www.ebu.ch/news/2021/11/digital-markets-act-ebu-calls-on-policy-makers-to-look-at-remaining-loopholes

Politico, 25/11/2021: Europe reins in Big Tech: What you need to know https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-digital-markets-act-dma-digital-services-act-dsa-regulation-platforms-google-amazon-facebook-apple-microsoft/

EBU: Policy Position, 25/11/2021: The media sector calls for remaining loopholes in the Digital Markets Act to be addresses during trilogue https://www.ebu.ch/news/2021/11/the-media-sector-calls-for-remaining-loopholes-in-the-digital-markets-act-to-be-addressed-during-trilogue

European Disability Forum (EDF), 26/11/2021: MEPs require major digital companies to ensure accessibility for persons with disabilities https://www.edf-feph.org/meps-require-major-digital-companies-to-ensure-accessibility-for-persons-with-disabilities/

Microsoft: EU Policy Blog, 10/12/2021: Let’s stay focused and make the Digital Markets Act effective https://blogs.microsoft.com/eupolicy/2021/12/10/lets-stay-focused-and-make-the-digital-markets-act-effective/

Bruegel: Blog, 14/12/2021: Which platforms will be caught by the Digital Markets Act? The ‘gatekeeper’ dilemma https://www.bruegel.org/2021/12/which-platforms-will-be-caught-by-the-digital-markets-act-the-gatekeeper-dilemma/

Mozilla: Blog, 15/12/2021: EU Digital Markets Act makes it easier for people to pick the software of their choice https://blog.mozilla.org/netpolicy/2021/12/15/eu-digital-markets-act-makes-it-easier-for-people-to-pick-the-software-of-their-choice/

Clifford Chance: Briefings, 21/12/2021: Digital Markets Act: EU regulation of online gatekeepers remains on track for adoption in first half of 2022 https://www.cliffordchance.com/briefings/2021/12/digital-markets-act--eu-regulation-of-online-gatekeepers-remains.html

Centre for European Reform: Policy Brief, 10/01/2022: No Pain, No Gain? The Digital Markets Act https://www.cer.eu/publications/archive/policy-brief/2022/no-pain-no-gain-digital-markets-act

Centre for European Reform (CER): Bulletin Articles, 24/01/2022: How the Digital Markets Act will challenge consumers https://www.cer.org.uk/publications/archive/bulletin-article/2022/how-digital-markets-act-will-challenge-consumers

European Broadcasting Union (EBU): Policy Position, 25/01/2022: Digital Markets Act -- EBU priorities for trilogue negotiations https://www.ebu.ch/news/2022/01/digital-markets-act---ebu-priorities-for-trilogue-negotiations

CEPA: Analysis, 28/01/2022: Why Europe’s Digital Markets Act Will Strain Transatlantic Relations https://cepa.org/why-europes-digital-markets-act-will-strain-transatlantic-relations/

ECIPE: Briefing, February 2022: The EU Digital Markets Act: Assessing the Quality of Regulation https://ecipe.org/publications/the-eu-digital-markets-act/

CSIS: Analysis, 08/02/2022: The European Union’s Digital Markets Act: A Primer https://www.csis.org/analysis/european-unions-digital-markets-act-primer

CEPR: VoxEU: Articles, 11/02/2022: The Digital Markets Act: An economic perspective on the final negotiations https://voxeu.org/article/digital-markets-act-economic-perspective-final-negotiations

Politico, 25/03/2022: EU ushers in brave new world of Big Tech regulation https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-landmark-rules-big-tech-anti-trust-digital-markets-act-dma/

Euronews, 25/03/2022: The EU's Digital Markets Act: What is it and what will the new law mean for you and Big Tech? https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/03/25/the-eu-s-digital-markets-act-what-is-it-and-what-will-the-new-law-mean-for-you-and-big-tec

IAPP: News, 25/03/2022: EU Parliament, Council reach deal on Digital Markets Act https://iapp.org/news/a/eu-parliament-council-reach-deal-on-digital-markets-act/

Digital Europe: Statement, 25/03/2022: Digital Markets Act deal: successful implementation will rely on collaborating with industry https://www.digitaleurope.org/news/digital-markets-act-deal-successful-implementation-will-rely-on-collaborating-with-industry/

The Economist: Business, 26/03/2022: Will the Digital Markets Act help Europe breed digital giants? https://www.economist.com/business/2022/03/26/will-the-digital-markets-act-help-europe-breed-digital-giants

Hunton Andrews Kurth: Privacy & Information Security Blog, 29/03/2022: European Union Reached a Political Agreement on the Digital Markets Act https://www.huntonprivacyblog.com/2022/03/29/european-union-reached-a-political-agreement-on-the-digital-markets-act/

Linklaters: Insights: Blog, 31/03/2022: The (antitrust) revolution is digitised: the EU’s Digital Markets Act passes major hurdle https://www.linklaters.com/en/insights/blogs/linkingcompetition/2022/march/the-antitrust-revolution-is-digitised_the-eus-digital-markets-act-passes-major-hurdle

S&P Global: Market Intelligence, 01/04/2022: Big fines can scare Big Tech, but enforcing Digital Markets Act is key – experts https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/big-fines-can-scare-big-tech-but-enforcing-digital-markets-act-is-key-8211-experts-69620415

Brookings Institution: TechStream, 14/04/2022: The EU’s experimental approach in overhauling competition rules https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/the-eus-experimental-approach-in-overhauling-competition-rules-digital-markets-act-dma/

Sciences Po: Interview, 19/04/2022: What’s The Outlook For The EU's Digital Markets Act? 3 Questions To Ayse Gizem Yasar https://www.sciencespo.fr/public/chaire-numerique/en/2022/04/19/interviewwhats-the-outlook-for-the-eus-digital-markets-act-3-questions-to-ayse-gizem-yasar/

Institute for International & European Affairs (IIEA): Events, 21/04/2022: The Digital Markets Act: Reshaping Europe’s Digital Economy https://www.iiea.com/events/the-digital-markets-act-reshaping-europes-digital-economy

Clifford Chance: Briefing, 10/05/2022: The Digital Markets Act: A new era for the digital sector in the EU https://www.cliffordchance.com/content/dam/cliffordchance/briefings/2022/05/the-digital-markets-act-a-new-era-for-the-digital-sector-in-the-eu.pdf

Bruegel: Blog, 11/05/2022: Insights for successful enforcement of Europe’s Digital Markets Act https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/insights-successful-enforcement-europes-digital-markets-act

Dentons: Insights, 17/05/2022: Digital Markets Act – are the internet giants facing a revolution? https://www.dentons.com/en/insights/alerts/2022/may/17/digital-markets-act--are-the-internet-giants-facing-a-revolution

Competition Policy International (CPI), 13/06/2022: The Digital Markets Act: The Path to Overregulation https://www.competitionpolicyinternational.com/the-digital-markets-act-the-path-to-overregulation/

European Broadcasting Union (EBU): Press Release, 05/07/2022: European Parliament Adopts The Digital Services Package, Setting The Bar High For Online Platforms https://www.ebu.ch/news/2022/07/european-parliament-adopts-the-digital-services-package-setting-the-bar-high-for-online-platforms

Ernst&Young (EY), 05/08/2022: Digital Markets Act - the path to a fair and competitive digital economy https://www.ey.com/en_pl/law/digital-markets-act-the-path-to-a-fair-and-competitive-digital-economy

European Institute of Public Administration (EIPA): Blog, 19/08/2022: The Digital Markets Act: more choice and improved data protection for users? https://www.eipa.eu/blog/the-digital-markets-act-more-choice-and-improved-data-protection-for-users/

Allen&Overy: Publications, 30/09/2022: An introduction to the Digital Markets Act with Thomas Kramler from the European Commission https://www.allenovery.com/en-gb/global/news-and-insights/publications/an-introduction-to-the-digital-markets-act-with-thomas-kramler-from-the-european-commission

Bruegel: Blog, 04/10/2022: How the European Union can best apply the Digital Markets Act https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/how-european-union-can-best-apply-digital-markets-act

Competition Policy International: Blogs, 14/10/2022: The EU Digital Markets Act – An Irish Perspective https://www.competitionpolicyinternational.com/the-eu-digital-markets-act-an-irish-perspective/

The Conversation, 21/10/2022: Can the EU’s Digital Markets Act rein in big tech? https://theconversation.com/can-the-eus-digital-markets-act-rein-in-big-tech-192373

KPMG: Insights, 28/10/2022: The Digital Markets Act is here. The journey to compliance begins https://home.kpmg/uk/en/home/insights/2022/10/digital-markets-act-is-here.html

Euronews, 02/11/2022: EU’s Digital Markets Act comes into force: What is it, and what does it mean for Big Tech? https://www.euronews.com/next/2022/11/02/eus-digital-markets-act-comes-into-force-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-for-big-tech

Bruegel: Blog, 10/11/2022: With a little help from some friends: coordinating Digital Markets Act enforcement https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/little-help-some-friends-coordinating-digital-markets-act-enforcement

EPRS: Briefing, November 2022: Digital markets act https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2021)690589

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News

EurActiv: Topics: DMA https://www.euractiv.com/topics/dma/

Politico: Tag: Digital Markets Act https://www.politico.eu/tag/digital-markets-act/

EurActiv, 15/12/2020: Revealed: Commission ushers in new era of digital regulation https://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/news/revealed-commission-ushers-in-new-era-of-digital-regulation/

EurActiv, 17/02/2021: Don’t ignore platforms ‘combining services’ in Digital Markets Act, Netherlands says https://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/news/dont-ignore-platforms-combining-services-in-digital-markets-act-netherlands-says/

Bloomberg, 20/10/2021: EU’s Ambitious New Tech Rules to Be Delayed Further Into 2022 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-10-20/eu-s-ambitious-new-tech-rules-to-be-delayed-further-into-2022

EurActiv, 11/11/2021: EU ambassadors approve ‘general approach’ to Digital Markets Act https://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/news/eu-ambassadors-approve-general-approach-to-digital-markets-act/

Bloomberg, 23/11/2021: EU Lawmakers Pass Strict New Rules Affecting Big U.S. Tech https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-23/eu-lawmakers-pass-strict-new-rules-affecting-big-u-s-tech

Malta Today, 25/11/2021: MEPs take on social media giants with Digital Markets Act rules https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/ewropej/113478/meps_take_on_social_media_giants_with_digital_markets_act_rules#.YaeYesfP2Uk

Reuters, 25/11/2021: EU countries agree on common stance on new rules for U.S. tech giants https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-countries-agree-common-stance-new-rules-us-tech-giants-2021-11-25/

CityAM, 14/01/2022: ‘An awful lot to play for’: Google lobbies EU for a softer Digital Markets Act as final changes made https://www.cityam.com/an-awful-lot-to-play-for-google-lobbies-eu-for-a-softer-digital-markets-act-as-amendments-made/

EurActiv, 16/02/2022: Key EU lawmaker aims for April deal on Digital Markets Act https://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/news/key-eu-lawmaker-aims-for-april-deal-on-digital-markets-act/

Politico, 24/03/2022: EU negotiators agree new rules to rein in tech giants https://www.politico.eu/article/eus-digital-markets-act-adopted/

The Verge, 24/03/2022: EU targets Big Tech with sweeping new antitrust legislation https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/24/22994234/eu-antitrust-legislation-dma-digital-markets-act-details

The Guardian, 25/03/2022: EU agrees sweeping new digital rules in effort to curb big tech’s power https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/mar/25/european-union-big-tech-googld-facebook-meta

BBC News, 25/03/2022: Europe agrees new law to curb Big Tech dominance https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-60870287

The Verge, 08/05/2022: The EU could start enforcing rules to regulate Big Tech in spring 2023 https://www.theverge.com/2022/5/8/23062666/eu-start-enforcing-the-dma-digital-markets-act-spring-2023-big-tech-regulation

Reuters, 05/07/2022: EU lawmakers pass landmark tech rules, but enforcement a worry https://www.reuters.com/technology/eu-lawmakers-pass-landmark-tech-rules-enforcement-worry-2022-07-05/

Politico, 10/08/2022: EU braces for Big Tech’s legal backlash against new digital rulebook https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-brace-legal-assault-against-digital-clampdown/

Reuters, 27/10/2022: EU wants 40-man antitrust team to enforce new tech rules, official says https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/eu-wants-40-man-antitrust-team-enforce-new-tech-rules-official-says-2022-10-27/

BBC News, 01/11/2022: New EU law could open up messaging and app buying https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-63458377

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Official

EUR-LEX: COM(2020)842: Proposal for a Regulation on contestable and fair markets in the digital sector (Digital Markets Act) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=COM:2020:842:FIN

EUR-LEX: SWD(2020)363: Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal - Impact Assessment Report https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=SWD:2020:363:FIN

EUR-LEX: SWD(2020)364: Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal - Executive Summary of the Impact Assessment Report https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=SWD:2020:364:FIN

European Parliament: Legislative Observatory: Procedure File for Proposal on Digital Markets Act (2020/0374(COD)) https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2020/0374(COD)

European Parliament: Legislative Train Schedule: Digital Markets Act https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-europe-fit-for-the-digital-age/file-digital-markets-act

European Commission: Priorities 2019-2024: The Digital Markets Act: ensuring fair and open digital markets https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-markets-act-ensuring-fair-and-open-digital-markets_en

European Commission: Press Release, 15/12/2020: Europe fit for the Digital Age: Commission proposes new rules for digital platforms https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2347

European Banking Federation (EBF), 15/06/2021: European Commission’s proposal of a Digital Markets Act – EBF Key messages https://www.ebf.eu/innovation-cybersecurity/european-commissions-proposal-of-a-digital-markets-act-ebf-key-messages/

S&D EP Group: Newsroom, 06/10/2021: S&Ds on DSA/DMA: We are astonished to hear others might put at risk these files that are crucial to our citizens https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/sds-dsadma-we-are-astonished-hear-others-might-put-risk-these-files-are-crucial-our

EFTA: News, 10/11/2021: EEA EFTA Comment on the proposal for a Digital Markets Act https://www.efta.int/EEA/news/EEA-EFTA-Comment-proposal-Digital-Markets-Act-526346

European Parliament: Press Release, 23/11/2021: Digital Markets Act: ending unfair practices of big online platforms https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20211118IPR17636/

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 25/11/2021: Regulating ‘big tech’: Council agrees on enhancing competition in the digital sphere https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/11/25/regulating-big-tech-council-agrees-on-enhancing-competition-in-the-digital-sphere/

EPP EP Group: Newsroom, 14/12/2021: Clear rules to put an end to "digital Wild West" https://www.eppgroup.eu/newsroom/news/clear-rules-to-put-an-end-to-digital-wild-west

GUE/NGL EP Group: News, 15/12/2021: Digital Markets Act: a small step towards reining in Big Tech https://left.eu/digital-markets-act-a-small-step-towards-reining-in-big-tech/

S&D EP Group: Newsroom, 15/12/2021: S&Ds made sure consumers will be able to cross-chat from one platform to another with the Digital Markets Act https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/sds-made-sure-consumers-will-be-able-cross-chat-one-platform-another-digital-markets-act

European Parliament: Press Release, 24/03/2022: Deal on Digital Markets Act: EU rules to ensure fair competition and more choice for users https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220315IPR25504/

Renew Europe EP Group: Newsroom, 24/03/2022: Digital Markets Act: Renew Europe secured key elements of the interinstitutional agreement https://www.reneweuropegroup.eu/news/2022-03-24/digital-markets-act-renew-europe-secured-key-elements-of-the-interinstitutional-agreement

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 25/03/2022: Digital Markets Act (DMA): agreement between the Council and the European Parliament https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/03/25/council-and-european-parliament-reach-agreement-on-the-digital-markets-act/

European Commission: Press Release, 25/03/2022: Digital Markets Act: Commission welcomes political agreement on rules to ensure fair and open digital markets https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_1978

European Commission: Remarks by Executive Vice-President Vestager for the political agreement on the Digital Markets Act (25 March 2022) https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/speech_22_2042

European Commission: Questions and Answers: Digital Markets Act: Ensuring fair and open digital markets (23 April 2022) https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_2349

European Parliament: Press Release, 05/07/2022: Digital Services: landmark rules adopted for a safer, open online environment https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220701IPR34364/

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 18/07/2022: DMA: Council gives final approval to new rules for fair competition online https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/07/18/dma-council-gives-final-approval-to-new-rules-for-fair-competition-online/

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 04/10/2022: DSA: Council gives final approval to the protection of users' rights online https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/10/04/dsa-council-gives-final-approval-to-the-protection-of-users-rights-online/

European Commission: Press Release, 31/10/2022: Digital Markets Act: rules for digital gatekeepers to ensure open markets enter into force https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_6423

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Wikipedia: Digital Markets Act https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Markets_Act

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